Red, the colour par excellence
For millennia, in Western culture, red has been the colour par excellence. Placed at the centre of chromatic systems, it was long the preferred colour, so much so that in many languages the word “red” was synonymous with “coloured” or even “beautiful”.
The colour red in ancient history
Humanity has been connected to the colour red since its very origins. According to the ancient myths of many cultures, human beings were shaped from earth (clay, sand, dust), which is generally described as red.
Together with white and black, red is one of the first colours to be used and the first colour that humankind learned to master, manufacture and reproduce in different shades. As early as thirty thousand years before Christ, red earths and iron oxides were used in Palaeolithic art. It is also very likely that humans began using red as body paint, for aesthetic, protective and social purposes, even before applying it to the walls of caves.
In Ancient Egypt, red is the colour of the arid desert sand, set in opposition to the fertile black earth of the Nile Valley. Red is associated with the god Seth, the embodiment of chaos, evil and destruction, and for this reason scribes use it for hieroglyphs indicating danger or misfortune. However, red is also used to distinguish genders: male figures are generally painted with red or brown skin, while women are depicted with lighter tones, beige or pale yellow.
The Romans loved polychromy, and red, the colour of the god Mars, often prevailed: bricks and roof tiles were red, as were decorations and wall paintings in villas; many fabrics used as household ornaments were red; red was also the make-up on the lips and cheeks of matrons. Considered beautiful, seductive and auspicious, red also abounded in jewellery: stones, coloured glass pastes, and pieces of coral set in precious metals.
In Rome, several red dyes were used: from the very common ochre, to cinnabar, rare and costly, to purple, an extremely precious dye that consolidated red as a symbol of power and prestige. In the 2nd century AD, wool dyed with Tyrian purple, the most expensive of all, was sold at ten or even twenty times the price of undyed wool. At first, fabrics dyed with purple were generally worn by aristocrats; later, the right to use them was restricted to priests, magistrates and military commanders. The emperor alone was allowed to dress entirely in purple, emphasising his absolute power.
The Middle Ages: between divine love and the flames of hell
During the Middle Ages, the symbolic system of red was reorganised around the ambivalence of fire and blood: red-as-fire, in a positive sense, represented the Holy Spirit, divine light and charity; in a negative sense, it was the colour of the flames of hell, of Satan and demons. Likewise, red-as-blood symbolised the blood shed by Christ on the cross, a sign of salvation and purification, while in a negative sense it represented sin, violence and lust.
Throughout the Middle Ages, red became a symbol of power for both the Pope, who dressed entirely in red, and the emperor. On the occasion of his coronation in the year 800, Charlemagne appeared in Rome before Pope Leo III, wearing a red chlamys in the Roman tradition. Over time, this garment evolved into a wide cloak, becoming a mandatory attribute of imperial power. In feudal Europe, many rulers followed suit, receiving a red garment or banner during their coronation. Once again, red represented power and prestige.
Indeed, it was the favourite colour of both high and minor nobility, who appreciated everything red: fabrics, clothing, jewellery, decorations and emblems. For a long time, red continued to be the preferred colour of the Western aristocracy, loved by women, who associated it with beauty and love, and by men, for whom it symbolised courage, strength and glory.
However, red could also be used as a mark of exclusion and infamy: in many medieval cities, prostitutes were required to wear a red garment to be identified, and the same colour characterised the executioner’s hood or features of negative figures such as Judas (often depicted with red hair).
From the Reformation to the Modern Age: the decline of red
At the end of the Middle Ages, a turbulent period began for red. It had to face competition from blue, which was admired and sometimes preferred, as well as the rise of black, a very fashionable colour at court, where it embodied luxury and elegance for many decades.
Red did not disappear, however; instead of the vivid, bright tones of the feudal period, darker shades or colours bordering on red, such as pink or purple, came into fashion.
In addition to competition from other colours, red also had to confront the Protestant Reformation, which associated it with “papist Rome” and considered it too ostentatious, costly, indecent, immoral and depraved. Great reformers such as Luther and Calvin imposed an aesthetic based on dark colours such as black, grey and blue. On the other hand, the Catholic Counter-Reformation, while maintaining splendour in places of worship, partially adopted Protestant values: the Pope increasingly dressed in white, spreading among Catholics the idea that wearing red was no longer particularly honourable.
Science also contributed to the downgrading of the colour red. When, in 1666, Isaac Newton discovered the light spectrum, red was no longer placed at the centre, as in ancient systems, but at the end of the chromatic scale. Red was thus officially deprived of its status as the “first colour”.
Despite this, in certain environments, such as the court of Versailles in the 17th century, red retained a degree of social distinction. Aristocrats wore shoes with red heels, a practice that spread to other European courts.
Among the middle classes and the rural world, red was rarer and, when present, was obtained from less expensive dyes that produced a duller, more muted colour. In these contexts, red was reserved for special festive occasions such as weddings: on that day, the bride wore her finest dress, which was often red.
Aside from the splendour of Versailles and other European courts, the 17th century was a rather gloomy one, marked by wars, famines, epidemics and climatic disasters that drastically reduced life expectancy. In such a context, red fell out of favour and, when present, appeared in tones such as carmine, wine red or crimson.
After a dark century, the 18th century presented itself as clear, bright and luminous not only in the intellectual and spiritual sphere but also in everyday life: windows became larger and lighting improved and became less expensive. Chemistry made advances in the production of dyes for textile manufacturing. The middle classes benefited most, now able to wear light and vivid colours that had previously been the prerogative of the aristocracy. In clothing as in interior decoration, light shades and “pastel” tones were highly fashionable, mainly within the ranges of blues, yellows, pinks and greys. Blue was the preferred colour, and red continued its decline, although it never disappeared entirely.
At court, red was mainly used in make-up. This was an era in which aristocrats living at court, to distinguish themselves from both peasants and nobles living in the countryside (considered inferior), emphasised the pallor of their skin to highlight their “blue blood”. Men and women covered their faces with white lead (highly toxic), colouring lips and cheekbones with equally dangerous substances based on cinnabar.
In peasant dress, the tradition of wearing red did not fade: throughout the European countryside during the 18th century, red continued to be the colour worn on feast days.
The 19th and 20th centuries: between politics and femininity
At the end of the 18th century, the symbolism of red acquired a new meaning: a political one. Born during the French Revolution, political red grew through the social struggles of 19th-century Europe and assumed an international dimension in the following century; the red flag first became a symbol of oppressed and revolting peoples, then increasingly associated with socialism and communism, and in some cases the word “red” came to embody forms of extreme political violence.
At the same time, during the 19th century, a gender reversal began: red, which had previously been a masculine colour symbolising strength and power, became increasingly associated with the feminine sphere. Men now dressed in blue or black (colours suited to bourgeois sobriety) and, with the abandonment of red trousers by the French army in the spring of 1915, ceased to wear red altogether, which thus became definitively a feminine colour. Women continued to regard it as elegant and fashionable, although not suitable for all occasions or all ages.
During the 20th century, dress codes were followed less and less, and the 1960s liberated the body from all constraints and taboos, including chromatic ones. Red asserted itself in the world of fashion as a balance between classical elegance and bold energy. Famous is “Valentino red”, which made red an icon of haute couture. Created in the 1960s by Valentino Garavani, inspired by a theatrical performance in Barcelona, it is a specific shade—a mix of magenta, yellow and black—that became the signature of his fashion house.
Red in the contemporary world
Today, in everyday life, red signals prohibitions and danger, and in commerce and advertising it is used to highlight, emphasise and attract attention. Often linked to luxury, elegance, and sensuality, it is also the colour of certain holidays such as Christmas and Valentine's Day. On some occasions it is still a colour that conveys solemnity and prestige, as shown by the custom of rolling out a red carpet to welcome important figures, to the point that the expression “red carpet” is used even when the carpet is not actually red.
Red, with its intensity and its contrasting meanings, has stood the test of time and continues to be one of the most present and powerful colours of our age.
Interesting facts about the colour red
- The meaning of colours is enriched not only by the physical sensations they evoke, but also by cultural constructs that vary according to changes in society; therefore, the same colour can assume different symbolic meanings depending on the population that uses it. For example, in Italy red is the colour of luck and love; in China it represents prosperity and well-being; while in South Africa it is the colour of mourning.
- The large red cross placed on the crusader’s chest is an invention of 19th-century Romantic iconography. In reality, it was small and always placed on the left shoulder of the tunic or cloak, in remembrance of Christ carrying the cross.
- In the Middle Ages, red appeared in over 60% of coats of arms, and even today more than 70% of the flags of UN member states include the colour red.
- Until the 18th century, theatre curtains were almost always blue; they became red when new forms of lighting spread, which enhanced actors against a red background, while blue made them appear too pale. The red of the curtain spread throughout the auditorium and, little by little, red—often associated with gold—became the symbol of theatre and opera.
The history of colours is both fascinating and complex, involving many aspects of human life and history. Here, I chose to focus mainly on the historical and social aspects related to clothing. Moreover, aside from a few brief references, it is a partial perspective, limited to Western culture — particularly European — which I know best and for which it is easier for me to find documentation.
Read the others articles about the history of colours: